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A- Alpha
(Al-fah) ∙ −
N- November
(No-vem-ber)
− ∙ B- Bravo
(Brah-voh)
− ∙ ∙ ∙
O- Oscar
(Oss-cah) − − − C- Charlie (Char-lee) − ∙ − ∙
P- Papa
(Pah-pah)
∙ − − ∙ (Shar-Lee)
Q- Quebec
(Keh-beck) − − ∙ − D- Delta
(Dell-tah) − ∙
∙
R- Romeo
(Row-me-oh) ∙ − ∙ E- Echo
(Eck-oh) ∙
S- Sierra
(See-air-ah) ∙ ∙ ∙ F- Foxtrot (Foks-trot)
∙
∙ − ∙
T- Tango
(Tang-oh)
− G- Golf
(Golf) − − ∙
U- Uniform
(You-nee-form) ∙ ∙
− H- Hotel
(Hoh-tell) ∙
∙ ∙ ∙
(Oo-nee-form) I- India
(In-dee-ah) ∙ ∙
V- Victor
(Vik-tah) ∙ ∙ ∙
− J- Juliett
(Jew-lee-ett)
∙ − − −
W-
Wiskey
(Wiss-key)
∙ − − K- Kilo
(Key-loh) − ∙ −
X- X-ray
(Ecks-ray) − ∙ ∙
− L- Lima
(Lee-mah) ∙ − ∙ ∙
Y- Yankee
(Yang-kee) − ∙ − − M- Mike
(Mike) − −
Z- Zulu
(Zoo-loo) − −
∙ ∙ Definition of terms A ABEAM – An aircraft is “abeam” a fix, point or object when that
fix, point or object is 90 degrees to the right or left of the aircraft track. ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE - Actual Height above the surface of the Earth, either land
or water. ABSOLUTE CEILING – The altitude where a particular airplane’s climb rate
reached zero. ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE—The distance required to accelerate to V1 with all engines at
takeoff power, experience an engine failure at V1 and continues the takeoff on
the remaining engine(s). The runway required includes the distance required to
climb to 35 feet by which time V2 speed must be attained. ACKNOWLEDGE – Let me know if you received my message. ACTIVE RUNWAY– Any runway or runways currently being used for takeoff and
landing. ADF
– Automatic Direction Finder ADVISE INTENSIONS – Tell me what you lan
to do.
AIR DENSITY – The density of the air in terms of
mass per unit volume. The
density of air decreases with altitude above the surface of the Earth and
increasing temperature. AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC
CONTROL CENTER (ARTCC) – A facility established to provide
air traffic control service to aircraft operating on IFR flight plans. AILERONS—Primary flight control surfaces
mounted on the trailing edge of an airplane wing, near the tip. Ailerons control
roll about the longitudinal axis. AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY— A publication
designed primarily as a pilot’s operational manual containing all airports,
seaplane bases, and heliports open to the public including communications data,
navigational facilities, and certain special notices and procedures. ALTIMETER—A flight
instrument that indicates altitude by sensing pressure changes. ALTITUDE (AGL)—The
actual height above ground level (AGL) at which the aircraft is flying. ALTITUDE (MSL)—The
actual height above mean sea level (MSL) at which the aircraft is flying. ATTITUDE INDICATOR— An
instrument which uses an artificial horizon and miniature airplane to depict the
position of the airplane in relation to the true horizon. The attitude indicator
senses roll as well as pitch, which is the up and down movement of the
airplane’s nose. ATTITUDE— The
position of an aircraft as determined by the relationship of its axes and a
reference, usually the earth’s horizon. AUTOPILOT—An
automatic flight control system which keeps an aircraft in level flight or on a
set course. Automatic pilots can be directed by the pilot, or they may be
coupled to a radio navigation signal. B BALKED LANDING— A go-around. BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB (VX)— The speed at
which the aircraft will produce the most gain in altitude in a given distance. BEST GLIDE—The
airspeed in which the aircraft glides the furthest for the least altitude lost
when in non-powered flight. BEST RATE OF CLIMB (VY)— The speed at
which the aircraft will produce the most gain in altitude in the least amount of
time. BUFFETING—The beating of an aerodynamic
structure or surface by unsteady flow, gusts, etc.; the irregular shaking or
oscillation of a vehicle component owing to turbulent air or separated flow. C COMMON TRAFFIC ADVISORY FREQUENCY—The common frequency used by airport traffic to announce
position reports in the vicinity of the airport. CONVENTIONAL LANDING GEAR—Landing gear employing a third
rear-mounted wheel. These airplanes are also sometimes referred to as tailwheel airplanes. COWL FLAPS—Devices arranged around certain
air-cooled engine cowlings which may be opened or closed to regulate the flow of
air around the engine. CRAB—A flight condition in which the
nose of the airplane is pointed into the wind a sufficient amount to counteract
a crosswind and maintain a desired track over the ground. CRITICAL ALTITUDE— The
maximum altitude under standard atmospheric conditions at which a turbocharged
engine can produce its rated horsepower. CRITICAL ANGLE OF ATTACK—The angle of attack at which a wing stalls regardless of
airspeed, flight attitude, or weight. D DENSITY ALTITUDE— This
altitude is pressure altitude corrected for variations from standard
temperature. When conditions are standard, pressure altitude and density
altitude are the same. If the temperature is above standard, the density
altitude is higher than pressure altitude. If the temperature is below standard,
the density altitude is lower than pressure altitude. This is an important
altitude because it is directly related to the airplane’s performance. DEWPOINT—The
temperature at which air can hold no more water. DITCHING—Emergency
landing in water. DRAG—An
aerodynamic force on a body acting parallel and opposite to the relative wind. The resistance of the atmosphere to the relative motion of an
aircraft. Drag opposes thrust and limits the speed of the airplane. DRIFT ANGLE—Angle between heading and track. E ELEVATOR— The
horizontal, movable primary control surface in the tail section, or empennage,
of an airplane. The elevator is hinged to the trailing edge of the fixed
horizontal stabilizer. EMPENNAGE—The
section of the airplane that consists of the vertical stabilizer, the horizontal
stabilizer, and the associated control surfaces. EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE (EGT)—The temperature of the exhaust gases as they leave the
cylinders of a reciprocating engine or the turbine section of a turbine engine. F FEATHERING PROPELLER (FEATHERED)—A controllable pitch propeller with a pitch range sufficient
to allow the blades to be turned parallel to the line of flight to reduce drag
and prevent further damage to an engine that has been shut down after a
malfunction. FIXATION— A
psychological condition where the pilot fixes attention on a single source of
information and ignores all other sources. FIXED-PITCH PROPELLERS— Propellers
with fixed blade angles. Fixed-pitch propellers are designed as climb
propellers, cruise propellers, or standard propellers. FLAPS—Hinged
portion of the trailing edge between the ailerons and fuselage. In some
aircraft, ailerons and flaps are interconnected to produce full-span “flaperons.” In either case, flaps change the lift and drag
on the wing. FLIGHT DIRECTOR—An automatic flight control
system in which the commands needed to fly the airplane are electronically
computed and displayed on a flight instrument. The commands are followed by the
human pilot with manual control inputs or, in the case of an autopilot system,
sent to servos that move the flight controls. FLOATING—A condition
when landing where the airplane does not settle to the runway due to excessive
airspeed. FORWARD SLIP—A slip
in which the airplane’s direction of motion continues the same as before the
slip was begun. In a forward slip, the airplane’s longitudinal axis is at an
angle to its flight path. FUSELAGE—The
section of the airplane that consists of the cabin and/or cockpit, containing
seats for the occupants and the controls for the airplane. G GLIDE RATIO—The
ratio between distance traveled and altitude lost during non-powered flight. GLIDEPATH—The
path of an aircraft relative to the ground while approaching a landing. GLOBAL POSITION SYSTEM (GPS)—A
satellite-based radio positioning, navigation, and time-transfer system. GO-AROUND— Terminating
a landing approach. GROUNDSPEED (GS)—The actual speed of
the airplane over the ground. It is true airspeed adjusted for wind. Groundspeed
decreases with a headwind, and increases with a tailwind. GROUND TRACK—The
aircraft’s path over the ground when in flight. H HEADING—The
direction in which the nose of the aircraft is pointing during flight. HEADING BUG—A marker
on the heading indicator that can be rotated to a specific heading for reference
purposes, or to command an autopilot to fly that heading. HEADING INDICATOR— An
instrument which senses airplane movement and displays heading based on a 360º
azimuth, with the final zero omitted. The heading indicator, also called a
directional gyro, is fundamentally a mechanical instrument designed to
facilitate the use of the magnetic compass. The heading indicator is not
affected by the forces that make the magnetic compass difficult to interpret. HIGH
PERFORMANCE AIRCRAFT—An aircraft with an engine of more than
200 horsepower. HORIZON—The
line of sight boundary between the earth and the sky. I IFR (INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES)—Rules that
govern the procedure for conducting flight in weather conditions below VFR
weather minimums. The term “IFR” also is used to define weather conditions and
the type of flight plan under which an aircraft is operating. INCLINOMETER—An
instrument consisting of a curved glass tube, housing a glass ball, and damped
with a fluid similar to kerosene. It may be used to indicate inclination, as a
level, or, as used in the turn indicators, to show the relationship between
gravity and centrifugal force in a turn. INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS)— The direct
instrument reading obtained from the airspeed indicator, uncorrected for
variations in atmospheric density, installation error, or instrument error.
Manufacturers use this airspeed as the basis for determining airplane
performance. Takeoff, landing, and stall speeds listed in the AFM or POH are
indicated airspeeds and do not normally vary with altitude or temperature. INDICATED ALTITUDE— The
altitude read directly from the altimeter (uncorrected) when it is set to the
current altimeter setting. INERTIA—The
opposition which a body offers to a change of motion. INITIAL CLIMB—This
stage of the climb begins when the airplane leaves the ground, and a pitch
attitude has
been established to climb away from the takeoff area. J K L LEADING EDGE—The
part of an airfoil that meets the airflow first. LEADING EDGE FLAP— A portion of the leading edge of
an airplane wing that folds downward to increase the camber, lift, and drag of
the wing. The leading-edge flaps are extended for takeoffs and landings to
increase the amount of aerodynamic lift that is produced at any given airspeed. LIFT—One of
the four main forces acting on an aircraft. On a fixed-wing aircraft, an upward
force created by the effect of airflow as it passes over and under the wing. LIFT COEFFICIENT— A coefficient
representing the lift of a given airfoil. Lift coefficient is obtained by
dividing the lift by the free-stream dynamic pressure and the representative
area under consideration. LIFT/DRAG RATIO— The
efficiency of an airfoil section. It is the ratio of the coefficient of lift to
the coefficient of drag for any given angle of attack. LIFT-OFF—The act of becoming airborne as a
result of the wings lifting the airplane off the ground, or the pilot rotating
the nose up, increasing the angle of attack to start a climb. M MACH—Speed relative to the speed of
sound. Mach 1 is the speed of sound. MACH BUFFET— Airflow
separation behind a shock-wave pressure barrier caused by airflow over flight
surfaces exceeding the speed of sound. MACH COMPENSATING DEVICE—A device to alert the pilot of inadvertent excursions beyond
its certified maximum operating speed. MACH CRITICAL—The MACH speed
at which some portion of the airflow over the wing first equals MACH 1.0. This is also
the speed at which a shock wave first appears on the airplane. MACH TUCK—A condition that can occur when operating a swept-wing
airplane in the transonic speed range. A shock wave could form in the root
portion of the wing and cause the air behind it to separate. This shock-induced
separation causes the center of pressure to move aft. This, combined with the
increasing amount of nose down force at higher speeds to maintain left flight,
causes the nose to “tuck.” If not corrected, the airplane could enter a steep,
sometimes unrecoverable dive. MAGNETIC COMPASS—A
device for determining direction measured from magnetic north. MAIN GEAR—The
wheels of an aircraft’s landing gear that supports the major part of the
aircraft’s weight. MANEUVERABILITY—Ability of an aircraft to change
directions along a flight path and withstand the stresses imposed upon it. MANEUVERING SPEED (VA) — The maximum speed where full, abrupt control movement can be
used without overstressing the airframe. MANIFOLD PRESSURE (MP)— The absolute
pressure of the fuel/air mixture within the intake manifold, usually indicated
in inches of mercury. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE TAKEOFF POWER—The maximum power an engine is allowed to develop for a
limited period of time; usually about one minute. MINIMUM CONTROLLABLE AIRSPEED—An airspeed at
which any further increase in angle of attack, increase in load factor, or
reduction in power, would result in an immediate stall. MIXTURE—The
ratio of fuel to air entering the engine’s cylinders. MUSHING—A
flight condition caused by slow speed where the control surfaces are marginally
effective. N N1, N2, N3—Spool speed expressed in percent
rpm. N1 on a turboprop is the gas producer speed. N1 on a turbofan or turbojet
engine is the fan speed or low pressure spool speed. N2 is the high pressure
spool speed on engine with 2 spools and medium pressure spool on engines with 3
spools with N3 being the high pressure spool. O OVERBOOST—A
condition in which a reciprocating engine has exceeded the maximum manifold
pressure allowed by the manufacturer. Can cause damage to
engine components. OVERSPEED—A
condition in which an engine has produced more r.p.m.
than the manufacturer recommends, or a condition in which the actual engine
speed is higher than the desired engine speed as set on the propeller control. OVERTEMP—A
condition in which a device has reached a temperature above that approved by the
manufacturer or any exhaust temperature that exceeds the maximum allowable for a
given operating condition or time limit. Can cause internal
damage to an engine. OVERTORQUE—A condition in which an engine
has produced more torque (power) than the manufacturer recommends, or a
condition in a turboprop or turboshaft engine where
the engine power has exceeded the maximum allowable for a given operating
condition or time limit. Can cause internal damage to an
engine. P P-FACTOR—A tendency for an aircraft to yaw
to the left due to the descending propeller blade on the right producing more
thrust than the ascending blade on the left. This occurs when the aircraft’s
longitudinal axis is in a climbing attitude in relation to the relative wind.
The P-factor would be to the right if the aircraft had a counterclockwise
rotating propeller. PILOT’S OPERATING HANDBOOK (POH)—A document
developed by the airplane manufacturer and contains the FAA approved Airplane
Flight Manual (AFM) information. PITCH—The
rotation of an airplane about its lateral axis, or on a propeller, the blade
angle as measured from plane of rotation. PIVOTAL ALTITUDE—A specific altitude at which,
when an airplane turns at a given groundspeed, a projecting of the sighting
reference line to a selected point on the ground will appear to pivot on that
point. PORPOISING— Oscillating
around the lateral axis of the aircraft during landing. POSITION LIGHTS— Lights on an aircraft consisting
of a red light on the left wing, a green light on the right wing, and a white
light on the tail. CFRs require that these lights be displayed in flight from
sunset to sunrise. POWER LEVER—The
cockpit lever connected to the fuel control unit for scheduling fuel flow to the
combustion chambers of a turbine engine. POWER—Implies work rate or units of
work per unit of time, and as such, it is a function of the speed at which the
force is developed. The term “power required” is generally associated with
reciprocating engines. POWERPLANT— A complete
engine and propeller combination with accessories. PROPELLER LEVER— The
control on a free power turbine turboprop that controls propeller speed and the
selection for propeller feathering PROPELLER SYNCHRONIZATION— A condition in
which all of the propellers have their pitch automatically adjusted to maintain
a constant r.p.m. among all of the engines of a
multiengine aircraft. PROPELLER—A device for propelling an
aircraft that, when rotated, produces by its action on the air, a thrust
approximately perpendicular to its plane of rotation. It includes the control
components normally supplied by its manufacturer. Q R RATE OF TURN—The
rate in degrees/second of a turn. RELATIVE WIND—The
direction of the airflow with respect to the wing. If a wing moves forward
horizontally, the relative wind moves backward horizontally. Relative wind is
parallel to and opposite the flightpath of the
airplane. REVERSE THRUST—A condition
where jet thrust is directed forward during landing to increase the rate of
deceleration. REVERSING PROPELLER— A
propeller system with a pitch change mechanism that includes full reversing
capability. When the pilot moves the throttle controls to reverse, the blade
angle changes to a pitch angle and produces a reverse thrust, which slows the
airplane down during a landing. ROLL—The
motion of the aircraft about the longitudinal axis. It is controlled by the
ailerons. ROUNDOUT (FLARE)— A pitch-up
during landing approach to reduce rate of descent and forward speed prior to
touchdown. RUDDER—The
movable primary control surface mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical fin
of an airplane. Movement of the rudder rotates the airplane about its vertical
axis. RUDDERVATOR—A pair
of control surfaces on the tail of an aircraft arranged in the form of a V.
These surfaces, when moved together by the control wheel, serve as elevators,
and when moved differentially by the rudder pedals, serve as a rudder. RUNWAY CENTERLINE LIGHTS—Runway
centerline lights are installed on some precision approach runways to facilitate
landing under adverse visibility conditions. They are located along the runway
centerline and are spaced at 50-foot intervals. When viewed from the landing
threshold, the runway centerline lights are white until the last 3,000 feet of
the runway. The white lights begin to alternate with red for the next 2,000
feet, and for the last 1,000 feet of the runway, all centerline lights are red. RUNWAY CENTERLINE MARKINGS— The runway centerline identifies the center of the runway and provides
alignment guidance during takeoff and landings. The centerline consists of a
line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps. RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS— Runway edge lights are used to
outline the edges of runways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility
conditions. These light systems are classified according to the intensity or
brightness they are capable of producing: they are the High Intensity Runway
Lights (HIRL), Medium Intensity Runway Lights (MIRL), and the Low Intensity
Runway Lights (LIRL). The HIRL and MIRL systems have variable intensity
controls, whereas the LIRLs normally have one intensity setting. RUNWAY END IDENTIFIER LIGHTS
(REIL)—One component of the runway lighting system. These lights
are installed at many airfields to provide rapid and positive identification of
the approach end of a particular runway. RUNWAY INCURSION— Any occurrence at an airport
involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that creates a
collision hazard or results in loss of separation with an aircraft taking off,
intending to takeoff, landing, or intending to land. RUNWAY THRESHOLD MARKINGS—Runway
threshold markings come in two configurations. They either consist of eight
longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about the
runway centerline, or the number of stripes is related to the runway width. A
threshold marking helps identify the beginning of the runway that is available
for landing. In some instances, the landing threshold may be displaced. S SEA LEVEL—A
reference height used to determine standard atmospheric conditions and altitude
measurements. SERVICE CEILING— The
maximum density altitude where the best rate-of-climb airspeed will produce a
100 feet-per-minute climb at maximum weight while in a clean configuration with
maximum continuous power. SIDESLIP—A slip
in which the airplane’s longitudinal axis remains parallel to the original flightpath, but the airplane no longer flies straight ahead.
Instead, the horizontal component of wing lift forces the airplane to move
sideways toward the low wing. SINGLE ENGINE ABSOLUTE CEILING—The altitude that a twinengine airplane can no
longer climb with one engine inoperative. SINGLE ENGINE SERVICE CEILING—The altitude
that a twinengine airplane can no
longer climb at a rate greater then 50 f.p.m. with one engine inoperative. SKID—A condition
where the tail of the airplane follows a path outside the path of the nose
during a turn. SLIP—An
intentional maneuver to decrease airspeed or increase rate of descent, and to
compensate for a crosswind on landing. A slip can also be unintentional when the
pilot fails to maintain the aircraft in coordinated flight. SPEED—The
distance traveled in a given time. SPEED BRAKES—A control system that extends
from the airplane structure into the airstream to produce drag and slow the
airplane. SPIN—An
aggravated stall that results in what is termed an “autorotation” wherein the
airplane follows a downward corkscrew path. As the airplane rotates around the
vertical axis, the rising wing is less stalled than the descending wing creating
a rolling, yawing, and pitching motion. SPOILERS—High-drag devices that can be
raised into the air flowing over an airfoil, reducing lift and increasing drag.
Spoilers are used for roll control on some aircraft. Deploying spoilers on both
wings at the same time allows the aircraft to descend without gaining speed.
Spoilers are also used to shorten the ground roll after landing. STABILATOR—A single-piece horizontal tail
surface on an airplane that pivots around a central hinge point. A stabilator serves the purposes of both the horizontal
stabilizer and the elevator. STABILITY—The
inherent quality of an airplane to correct for conditions that may disturb its
equilibrium, and to return or to continue on the original
flightpath. It is primarily an airplane design characteristic. STABILIZED APPROACH—A
landing approach in which the pilot establishes and maintains a constant angle glidepath towards a predetermined point on the landing
runway. It is based on the pilot’s judgment of certain visual cues, and depends
on the maintenance of a constant final descent airspeed and configuration. STALL—A rapid
decrease in lift caused by the separation of airflow from the wing’s surface
brought on by exceeding the critical angle of attack. A stall can occur at any
pitch attitude or airspeed. STANDARD-RATE TURN—A turn
at the rate of 3º per second which enables the airplane to complete a 360º turn
in 2 minutes. STARTER/GENERATOR— A
combined unit used on turbine engines. The device acts as a starter for rotating
the engine, and after running, internal circuits are shifted to convert the
device into a generator. SUBSONIC—Speed below the speed of sound. SUPERSONIC—Speed above the speed of sound. SWEPT WING—A wing planform in which the tips of the wing are farther back than
the wing root. T TAILWHEEL AIRCRAFT— SEE CONVENTIONAL LANDING GEAR. TAKEOFF ROLL (GROUND ROLL)—The total distance required for an aircraft to become
airborne. TAXIWAY LIGHTS—
Omnidirectional
lights that outline the edges of the taxiway and are blue in color. TAXIWAY TURNOFF LIGHTS— Flush lights
which emit a steady green color. TETRAHEDRON— A
large, triangular-shaped, kite-like object installed near the runway.
Tetrahedrons are mounted on a pivot and are free to swing with the wind to show
the pilot the direction of the wind as an aid in takeoffs and landings. THROTTLE—The
valve in a carburetor or fuel control unit that determines the amount of
fuel-air mixture that is fed to the engine. THRUST REVERSERS—Devices which redirect the flow
of jet exhaust to reverse the direction of thrust. THRUST—The
force which imparts a change in the velocity of a mass. This force is measured
in pounds but has no element of time or rate. The term, thrust required, is
generally associated with jet engines. A forward force which
propels the airplane through the air. TOUCHDOWN ZONE LIGHTS— Two rows of transverse light bars disposed symmetrically
about the runway centerline in the runway touchdown zone. TRACK—The
actual path made over the ground in flight. TRAILING EDGE—The
portion of the airfoil where the airflow over the upper surface rejoins the
lower surface airflow. TRANSONIC—At the
speed of sound. TRANSPONDER—The
airborne portion of the secondary surveillance radar system. The transponder
emits a reply when queried by a radar facility. TRICYCLE GEAR—Landing
gear employing a third wheel located on the nose of the aircraft. TRIM TAB—A small
auxiliary hinged portion of a movable control surface that can be adjusted
during flight to a position resulting in a balance of control forces. T-TAIL—An
aircraft with the horizontal stabilizer mounted on the top of the vertical
stabilizer, forming a T. TURBINE OUTLET TEMPERATURE (TOT)— The temperature
of the gases as they exit the turbine section. TURBOCHARGER— An air compressor driven by
exhaust gases, which increases the pressure of the air going into the engine
through the carburetor or fuel injection system. TURBOFAN ENGINE—A
turbojet engine in which additional propulsive thrust is gained by extending a
portion of the compressor or turbine blades outside the inner engine case. The
extended blades propel bypass air along the engine axis but between the inner
and outer casing. The air is not combusted but does provide additional thrust. TURBOJET ENGINE—A jet engine incorporating a
turbine-driven air compressor to take in and compress air for the combustion of
fuel, the gases of combustion being used both to rotate the turbine and create a
thrust producing jet. TURBOPROP ENGINE—A turbine
engine that drives a propeller through a reduction gearing arrangement. Most of the
energy in the exhaust gases is converted into torque, rather than its
acceleration being used to propel the aircraft. TURBULENCE—An
occurrence in which a flow of fluid is unsteady. TURN COORDINATOR—A rate gyro
that senses both roll and yaw due to the gimbal being
canted. Has largely replaced the turn-and-slip indicator
in modern aircraft. TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR— A flight instrument consisting of a rate gyro to indicate the
rate of yaw and a curved glass inclinometer to indicate the relationship between
gravity and centrifugal force. The turn-and-slip indicator indicates the
relationship between angle of bank and rate of yaw. Also
called a turn-and-bank indicator. U UNICOM— A nongovernment air/ground radio
communication station which may provide airport information at public use
airports where there is no tower or FSS. V V-BARS—The
flight director displays on the attitude indicator that provide control guidance
to the pilot. V-SPEEDS—Designated speeds for a specific
flight condition. VA—The
design maneuvering speed. This is the “rough air” speed and the maximum speed
for abrupt maneuvers. If during flight, rough air or severe turbulence is
encountered, reduce the airspeed to maneuvering speed or less to minimize stress
on the airplane structure. It is important to consider weight when referencing
this speed. For example, VA may be 100 knots when an airplane is heavily loaded,
but only 90 knots when the load is light. VECTOR—A force
vector is a graphic representation of a force and shows both the magnitude and
direction of the force. VELOCITY—The
speed or rate of movement in a certain direction. VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)— An instrument
that uses static pressure to display a rate of climb or descent in feet per
minute. The VSI can also sometimes be called a vertical velocity indicator
(VVI). VFE—The
maximum speed with the flaps extended. The upper limit of the
white arc. VFO—The
maximum speed that the flaps can be extended or retracted. VFR TERMINAL AREA CHARTS (1:250,000)— Depict Class B
airspace which provides for the control or segregation of all the aircraft
within the Class B airspace. The chart depicts topographic information and
aeronautical information which includes visual and radio aids to navigation,
airports, controlled airspace, restricted areas, obstructions, and related data. VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATOR (VASI)— The most common
visual glidepath system in use. The VASI provides
obstruction clearance within 10° of the extended runway centerline, and to 4
nautical miles (NM) from the runway threshold. VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR)— Code of Federal Regulations that
govern the procedures for conducting flight under visual conditions. VLE—Landing gear extended speed. The
maximum speed at which an airplane can be safely flown with the landing gear
extended. VLOF—Lift-off speed.
The speed at which the aircraft departs the runway during
takeoff. VLO—Landing
gear operating speed. The maximum speed for extending or retracting the landing
gear if using an airplane equipped with retractable landing gear. VMC—Minimum control
airspeed. This is the minimum flight speed at which a twin-engine airplane
can be satisfactorily controlled when an engine suddenly becomes inoperative and
the remaining engine is at takeoff power. VMD—Minimum drag
speed. VMO—Maximum operating speed expressed
in knots. VNE—Never-exceed speed. Operating
above this speed is prohibited since it may result in damage or structural
failure. The red line on the airspeed indicator. VNO—Maximum
structural cruising speed. Do not exceed this speed except in smooth air. The upper limit of the green arc. VP—Minimum
dynamic hydroplaning speed. The minimum speed required to start dynamic
hydroplaning. VR—Rotation speed.
The speed that the pilot begins rotating the aircraft prior to
lift-off. VS0—Stalling speed or the minimum
steady flight speed in the landing configuration. In small airplanes, this is
the power-off stall speed at the maximum landing weight in the landing
configuration (gear and flaps down). The lower limit of the
white arc. VS1—Stalling speed or the minimum
steady flight speed obtained in a specified configuration. For most airplanes,
this is the power-off stall speed at the maximum takeoff weight in the clean
configuration (gear up, if retractable, and flaps up). The
lower limit of the green arc. VSSE—Safe,
intentional one-engine inoperative speed. The minimum
speed to intentionally render the critical engine inoperative. VX—Best
angle-of-climb speed. The airspeed at which an airplane
gains the greatest amount of altitude in a given distance. It is used
during a short-field takeoff to clear an obstacle. VXSE—Best angle of
climb speed with one engine inoperative. The airspeed at
which an airplane gains the greatest amount of altitude in a given distance in a
light, twin-engine airplane following an engine failure. VY—Best
rate-of-climb speed. This airspeed provides the most altitude gain in a
given period of time. VYSE—Best
rate-of-climb speed with one engine inoperative. This airspeed
provides the most altitude gain in a given period of time in a light, twinengine airplane following an
engine failure. W WAKE TURBULENCE—Wingtip vortices that are created
when an airplane generates lift. When an airplane generates lift, air spills
over the wingtips from the high pressure areas below the wings to the low
pressure areas above them. This flow causes rapidly rotating whirlpools of air
called wingtip vortices or wake turbulence. WEATHERVANE—The
tendency of the aircraft to turn into the relative wind. WHEELBARROWING— A
condition caused when forward yoke or stick pressure during takeoff or landing
causes the aircraft to ride on the nosewheel alone. WIND CORRECTION ANGLE— Correction
applied to the course to establish a heading so that track will coincide with
course. WIND DIRECTION INDICATORS— Indicators that
include a wind sock, wind tee, or tetrahedron. Visual
reference will determine wind direction and runway in use. WIND SHEAR—A
sudden, drastic shift in windspeed, direction, or both
that may occur in the horizontal or vertical plane. WINDMILLING—When
the air moving through a propeller creates the rotational energy. WINDSOCK—A
truncated cloth cone open at both ends and mounted on a freewheeling pivot that
indicates the direction from which the wind is blowing. WING—Airfoil attached to each side of
the fuselage and are the main lifting surfaces that
support the airplane in flight. WING AREA—The total surface of the wing
(square feet), which includes control surfaces and may include wing area covered
by the fuselage (main body of the airplane), and engine nacelles. WING SPAN— The
maximum distance from wingtip to wingtip. WINGTIP VORTICES— The
rapidly rotating air that spills over an airplane’s wings during flight. The
intensity of the turbulence depends on the airplane’s weight, speed, and
configuration. It is also referred to as wake turbulence. Vortices from heavy aircraft
may be extremely hazardous to small aircraft. X Y YAW—Rotation about the vertical axis
of an aircraft. Z ZERO SIDESLIP—A maneuver in a twin-engine
airplane with one engine inoperative that involves a small amount of bank and
slightly uncoordinated flight to align the fuselage with the direction of travel
and minimize drag. ZERO THRUST (SIMULATED FEATHER)— An engine configuration with a
low power setting that simulates a propeller feathered condition. Communications The following was taken from
http://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/air_traffic/publications/ATpubs/AIM/Chap4/aim0402.html
4-2-1. General a. Radio communications are a critical link in the ATC system.
The link can be a strong bond between pilot and controller or it can be broken
with surprising speed and disastrous results. Discussion herein provides basic
procedures for new pilots and also highlights safe operating concepts for all
pilots. b. The single, most important thought in pilot-controller
communications is understanding. It is essential,
therefore, that pilots acknowledge each radio communication with ATC by using
the appropriate aircraft call sign. Brevity is important, and contacts should be
kept as brief as possible, but controllers must know what you want to do before
they can properly carry out their control duties. And you, the pilot, must know
exactly what the controller wants you to do. Since concise phraseology may not
always be adequate, use whatever words are necessary to get your message across.
Pilots are to maintain vigilance in monitoring air traffic control radio
communications frequencies for potential traffic conflicts with their aircraft
especially when operating on an active runway and/or when conducting a final
approach to landing. c. All pilots will find the Pilot/Controller Glossary very
helpful in learning what certain words or phrases mean. Good phraseology
enhances safety and is the mark of a professional pilot. Jargon, chatter, and
"CB" slang have no place in ATC communications. The Pilot/Controller Glossary is
the same glossary used in FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control.
We recommend that it be studied and reviewed from time to time to sharpen your
communication skills.
4-2-2. Radio Technique a.
Listen
before you transmit. Many times you can get the information you want through
ATIS or by monitoring the frequency. Except for a few situations where some
frequency overlap occurs, if you hear someone else talking, the keying of your
transmitter will be futile and you will probably jam their receivers causing
them to repeat their call. If you have just changed frequencies, pause, listen,
and make sure the frequency is clear. b.
Think before keying your transmitter. Know
what you want to say and if it is lengthy; e.g., a flight plan or IFR position
report, jot it down. c. The microphone should be very close to your lips and after
pressing the mike button, a slight pause may be necessary to be sure the first
word is transmitted. Speak in a normal, conversational tone. d. When you release the button, wait a few seconds before
calling again. The controller or FSS specialist may be jotting down your number,
looking for your flight plan, transmitting on a different frequency, or
selecting the transmitter for your frequency. e. Be alert to the sounds or the lack of sounds in your
receiver. Check your volume, recheck your frequency, and make sure that your
microphone is not stuck in the transmit position. Frequency blockage can,
and has, occurred for extended periods of time due to unintentional transmitter
operation. This type of interference is commonly referred to as a "stuck mike,"
and controllers may refer to it in this manner when attempting to assign an
alternate frequency. If the assigned frequency is completely blocked by this
type of interference, use the procedures described for en route IFR radio
frequency outage to establish or reestablish communications with ATC. f. Be sure that you are within the performance range of your
radio equipment and the ground station equipment. Remote radio sites do not
always transmit and receive on all of a facility's available frequencies,
particularly with regard to VOR sites where you can hear but not reach a ground
station's receiver. Remember that higher altitudes increase the range of VHF
"line of sight" communications.
4-2-3. Contact Procedures a.
Initial Contact. 1. The terms initial contact or initial callup means the first radio call you make to a given
facility or the first call to a different controller or FSS specialist within a
facility. Use the following format: (a)
Name of the facility being called; (b)
Your full aircraft
identification as filed in the flight plan or as discussed in paragraph 4-2-4, Aircraft Call Signs; (c)
When operating on an airport surface,
state your position. (d)
The type of message to follow or your
request if it is short; and (e)
The word "Over" if required. EXAMPLE- 2. Many FSSs are equipped with Remote Communications Outlets
(RCOs) and can transmit on the same frequency at more than one location. The
frequencies available at specific locations are indicated on charts above FSS
communications boxes. To enable the specialist to utilize the correct
transmitter, advise the location and the frequency on
which you expect a reply.
EXAMPLE- 3. If radio reception is reasonably assured, inclusion of your
request, your position or altitude, and the phrase "(ATIS) Information Charlie
received" in the initial contact helps decrease radio frequency congestion. Use
discretion; do not overload the controller with information unneeded or
superfluous. If you do not get a response from the ground station, recheck your
radios or use another transmitter, but keep the next contact short.
EXAMPLE- b.
Initial Contact When Your Transmitting and Receiving Frequencies are Different. 1. If you are attempting to establish contact with a ground
station and you are receiving on a different frequency than that transmitted,
indicate the VOR name or the frequency on which you expect a reply. Most FSSs
and control facilities can transmit on several VOR stations in the area. Use the
appropriate FSS call sign as indicated on charts.
EXAMPLE- 2. If the chart indicates FSS frequencies above the VORTAC or in
the FSS communications boxes, transmit or receive on those frequencies nearest
your location. 3. When unable to establish contact and you wish to call any
ground station, use the phrase "ANY RADIO (tower) (station), GIVE CESSNA THREE
ONE SIX ZERO FOXTROT A CALL ON (frequency) OR (V-O-R)." If an emergency exists or you need assistance, so state. c.
Subsequent Contacts and Responses to Callup from a
Ground Facility. Use
the same format as used for the initial contact except you should state your
message or request with the callup in one
transmission. The ground station name and the word "Over" may be omitted if the
message requires an obvious reply and there is no possibility for
misunderstandings. You should acknowledge all callups
or clearances unless the controller or FSS specialist advises otherwise.
There are some occasions when controllers must issue time-critical instructions
to other aircraft, and they may be in a position to observe your response,
either visually or on radar. If the situation demands your response, take
appropriate action or immediately advise the facility of any problem.
Acknowledge with your aircraft identification, either at the beginning or at the
end of your transmission, and one of the words "Wilco,"
"Roger," "Affirmative," "Negative," or other appropriate remarks; e.g., "PIPER
TWO ONE FOUR LIMA, ROGER." If you have been receiving services; e.g., VFR
traffic advisories and you are leaving the area or changing frequencies, advise
the ATC facility and terminate contact. d.
Acknowledgement of Frequency Changes. 1. When advised by ATC to change frequencies, acknowledge the
instruction. If you select the new frequency without an acknowledgement, the
controller's workload is increased because there is no way of knowing whether
you received the instruction or have had radio communications failure. 2. At times, a controller/specialist may be working a sector
with multiple frequency assignments. In order to eliminate unnecessary verbiage
and to free the controller/specialist for higher priority transmissions, the
controller/specialist may request the pilot "(Identification), change to my
frequency 123.4." This phrase should alert the pilot that the
controller/specialist is only changing frequencies, not controller/specialist,
and that initial callup phraseology may be
abbreviated.
EXAMPLE- e.
Compliance with Frequency Changes. When
instructed by ATC to change frequencies, select the new frequency as soon as
possible unless instructed to make the change at a specific time, fix, or
altitude. A delay in making the change could result in an untimely receipt of
important information. If you are instructed to make the frequency change at a
specific time, fix, or altitude, monitor the frequency you are on until reaching
the specified time, fix, or altitudes unless instructed otherwise by ATC. REFERENCE- * Taken from
http://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/air_traffic/publications/ATpubs/AIM/Chap4/aim0402.html which is an excellent source of flight
information for both Real World Flights and FlightSimX. |
